Parthenogenesis - Reproduction Without Sex

Parthenogenesis is a type of asexual reproduction in which a female gamete or egg cell develops into an individual without fertilization. The term comes from the Greek words parthenos (meaning virgin) and genesis (meaning creation.) Animals, including most kinds of wasps, bees, and ants, that have no sex chromosomes reproduce by this process. Some reptiles and fish are also capable of reproducing in this manner. Many plants are also capable of reproducing by parthenogenesis. Most organisms that reproduce by parthenogenesis also reproduce sexually. This type of parthenogenesis is known as facultative parthenogenesis, and organisms including water fleas, crayfish, snakes, sharks, and Komodo dragons reproduce through this process. Other parthenogenic species, including some reptiles, amphibians, and fishes, are only capable of reproducing asexually. Key Takeaways: Parthenogenesis In parthenogenesis, reproduction occurs asexually when a female egg cell develops into a new individual without fertilization.Many different types of organisms reproduce by parthenogenesis including insects, amphibians, reptiles, fish, and plants.Most parthenogenic organisms also reproduce sexually, while others reproduce only by asexual means.Parthenogenesis is an adaptive strategy that allows organisms to reproduce when sexual reproduction is not possible due to environmental conditions.Parthenogenesis that happens by apomixis involves the replication of an egg by mitosis resulting in diploid cells that are clones of the parent.Parthenogenesis that happens by automixis involves the replication of an egg by meiosis and the transformation of the haploid egg to a diploid cell by chromosome duplication or fusion with a polar body.In arrhenotokous parthenogenesis, the unfertilized egg develops into a male.In thelytoky parthenogenesis, the unfertilized egg develops into a female.In deute rotoky parthenogenesis, a male or female may develop from the unfertilized egg. Advantages and Disadvantages Parthenogenesis is an adaptive strategy to ensure the reproduction of organisms when conditions are not favorable for sexual reproduction. Asexual reproduction can be advantageous to organisms that must remain in a particular environment and in places where mates are scarce. Numerous offspring can be produced without costing the parent a great amount of energy or time. A disadvantage of this type of reproduction is the lack of genetic variation. There is no movement of genes from one population to another. Since environments are unstable, populations that are genetically variable are able to adapt to changing conditions better than those that lack genetic variation. How Parthenogenesis Happens Parthenogenesis occurs in two main ways: apomixis and automixis. In apomixis, egg cells are produced by mitosis. In apomictic parthenogenesis, the female sex cell (oocyte) replicates by mitosis producing two diploid cells. These cells have the full complement of chromosomes needed to develop into an embryo. The resulting offspring are clones of the parent cell. Among the organisms that reproduce in this manner are flowering plants and aphids. Dorling Kindersley / Getty Images In automixis, egg cells are produced by meiosis. Normally in oogenesis (egg cell development), the resulting daughter cells are divided unequally during meiosis. This asymmetrical cytokinesis results in one large egg cell (oocyte) and smaller cells called polar bodies. The polar bodies degrade and are not fertilized. The oocyte is  haploid  and only becomes diploid after it is  fertilized by male sperm. Since  automictic parthenogenesis does not involve males, the egg cell becomes diploid by fusing with one of the polar bodies or by duplicating its chromosomes and doubling its genetic material. Since the resulting offspring are produced by meiosis, genetic recombination  occurs and these individuals are not true clones of the parent cell. Sexual Activity and Parthenogenesis In an interesting twist, some organisms that reproduce by parthenogenesis actually need sexual activity for parthenogenesis to occur. Known as pseudogamy or gynogenesis, this type of reproduction requires the presence of sperm cells to stimulate egg cell development. In the process, no genetic material is exchanged because the sperm cell does not fertilize the egg cell. The egg cell develops into an embryo by parthenogenesis. Organisms that reproduce in this manner include some salamanders, stick insects, ticks,  aphids,  mites,  cicadas, wasps, bees, and  ants. How Sex Is Determined In some organisms such as wasps, bees, and  ants, sex is determined by fertilization. In arrhenotokous parthenogenesis, an  unfertilized egg develops into a male and a fertilized egg develops into a female. The female is diploid and contains two sets  of chromosomes, while the male is haploid. In thelytoky parthenogenesis,  unfertilized  eggs develop into  females.  Thelytoky parthenogenesis occurs in some ants, bees, wasps, arthropods, salamanders,  fish, and reptiles. In  deuterotoky parthenogenesis, both males and females develop from unfertilized eggs. Other Types of Asexual Reproduction In addition to parthenogenesis, there are several other types of asexual reproduction. Some of these methods include: Spores: Reproductive cells develop into new organisms without fertilization.Binary fission: An individual replicates and divides by mitosis creating two individuals.Budding: An individual grows out of the body of its parent.Regeneration: The detached part of an individual forms another individual. Sources Allen, L., et al. â€Å"Molecular Evidence for the First Records of Facultative Parthenogenesis in Elapid  Snakes.†Ã‚  Royal Society Open Science, vol. 5, no. 2, 2018.Dudgeon, Christine L., et al. â€Å"Switch from Sexual to Parthenogenetic Reproduction in a Zebra Shark.†Ã‚  Nature News, Nature Publishing Group, 16 Jan. 2017. Parthenogenesis.  New World Encyclopedia.

The Slavery Of Slavery And Slavery - 1505 Words

Bills! Bills! Bills! In 1619, the first enslaved Africans were brought to Jamestown, Virginia. Their sole purpose was to work the fields picking and farming profitable crops such as cotton and tobacco. It is estimated that between 1700 and 1800 six to seven billion enslaved Africans were brought to the American shore (Slavery). Life as an enslaved African was more than tough, it was appalling. Slaves were prohibited from becoming literate, they were restricted in every aspect, whether it was in movement or behavior, and they were punished severely. Slave masters â€Å"took sexual liberties† with enslaved women, which was thought to be a tactic to procreate slaves (Slavery). According to that interpretation, slave masters were fueled to†¦show more content†¦In 1865 Black codes were enacted, which denied African Americans the right to serve on juries, vote, join state militias and or start a job without permission from their previous employer. Pig Laws went into effect around the same time of Black Codes and they harshly penalized Black Americans for petty crimes such as handing out felonies for stealing farm animals. Both Black Codes and Pig Laws were repealed by 1877 but rewritten into Jim Crow Laws, which enforced racial segregation and were a way continue to treat African Americans as inferior (Black). All three of these oppressive laws have habitually traversed into the justice system today. Prisons are overpopulated with Africans Americans, some of which have received harsh sentences for petty crimes, similarly to the Pig Laws. Black Americans have endured so much pain and overcame many obstacles. They have yet to receive reparations, but they have been apologized to. In 2008, the United States house of representatives issued an apology to African Americans for slavery and Jim Crow Laws. The apology resolution was drafted by Steve Cohen, a Democrat from Tennessee (Walsh). On January 3rd, 2017 during the 115th Congress and the 1st session, H.R.40 was introduced was introduced to the house. H.R.40 is the â€Å"Commission to Study and Develop Reparation Proposals for African Americans Act.† The bill is sponsored byShow MoreRelatedSlavery And The Slavery Of Slavery933 Words   |  4 Pages Slavery, up to this point has progressively gotten weaker. In 1787 slavery is made illegal in the northwest territory. In 1793 Eli Whitney made the cotton gin making the demand for slaves increase. In 1820 the missouri compromise was written to ban slavery in all states above the northern missouri border. In the year 1831 Preacher Nat Turner starts a rebellion that is known to be the largest slave uprising in American History. also that year William Lloyd Garrison started publishing the LiberatorRead MoreSlavery And The Slavery Of Slavery Essay1742 Words   |  7 Pagesto resist their masters, and the institution of slavery in a subtle or a suicidal way. The vi sions of freedom varied throughout time periods and regions; in 1739, you have the Stono Rebellion, people used laws to argue their cases of injustice, such as Emanuel Pieterson and Dorothy Angola, who fought for the freedom of their child and David Walker, Frederick Douglass and Harriet Jacob who used literature to speak against the institution of slavery. Another aspect was that freedom had a differentRead MoreThe Slavery Of Slavery And Slavery944 Words   |  4 Pagescondemn slavery. The South also used religion as their argument, but instead, they used the Bible to argue that slavery was an acceptable part of life. People have questioned whether it was right or wrong of the South to use the bible to support their beliefs in slavery. Some would say that pro-slavery southerners had every right to use the Bible to support their beliefs. When Northerners began to use the Bible against slavery, southerners used this same argument to support it. Slavery was a practiceRead MoreSlavery : Slavery And Slavery901 Words   |  4 PagesSlavery in America started in 1619 when settlers brought over African Americans to Jamestown, Virginia. The slaves came to Jamestown to work on the tobacco plantations. The slaves were also sent to other colonies such as South Carolina to work on the cotton plantations. Slaves were people who worked for no pay. This caused the land owners to make more profit from their plantations because they didn’t have to pay their workers. Southern slave owners, specifically in South Carolina, relied on slaveryRead MoreSlavery And The Slavery Of Slavery Essay2080 Words   |  9 PagesThere has been an ongoing debate on whether Christianity condoned or condemned slavery. In this essay, I will discuss how slave owners used biblical context to uphold the institution of slavery. I will begin analyzing scriptures in the bible that pertain to slavery. It is in my belief that the Bible did not condone slavery in the way that slave owners upheld slavery. I do not argue against that there were not slaves by bondage but they were not enslaved against their will but through the will ofRead MoreSlavery And Its Effects On Slavery889 Words   |  4 PagesSlavery Slaves suffered within a system characterized by undernourishment, overwork, harsh punishment, ill health, and despair. The purpose of this paper is to address the significant problems slavery caused the world in which talk of rights and liberties were increasingly popularized. Slavery divested lives of many African Americans who were sold into enslavement for many years. The Start of Slavery Slavery began when the African American people were brought to Jamestown, Virginia, in 1619. HundredsRead MoreSlavery And The Black Slavery1534 Words   |  7 PagesFROM SLAVERY TO FREEDOM CHAPTERS 4, 5 and 6 Chapter 4 Slave Societies in this chapter mean people with similar characteristics who lived together in a well or less organized community. Slave societies in eighteenth -century were common in North America in New England, the Mid-Atlantic and the Lower Mississippi Valley. The black slavery experience was not unique, that is not the same in these areas, was influenced by local conditions, nation of the colonizers, composition of men and women, statisticalRead MoreSlavery And Its Effects On Slavery Essay1202 Words   |  5 Pages This was the period of post-slavery, early twentieth century, in southern United States where blacks were still treated by whites inhumanly and cruelly, even after the abolition laws of slavery of 1863. They were still named as ‘color’. Nothing much changed in African-American’s lives, though the laws of abolition of slavery were made, because now the slavery system became a way of life. The system was accepted as destiny. So the whites also got license to take disadvantages and started exploitingRead MoreReparations For Slavery : Slavery1218 Words   |  5 Pages Reparations for Slavery? Harriet Tubman once said, â€Å"Now I ve been free, I know what a dreadful condition slavery is. I have seen hundreds of escaped slaves, but I never saw one who was willing to go back and be a slave.† What is a reparation? A reparation is the making of amends for a wrong one has done, by paying money to or otherwise helping those who have been wronged. The biggest question of time is should African Americans receive payments for slavery? Many people would say yes withRead MoreSlavery Is Not Extinct : Slavery1904 Words   |  8 PagesMarch, 2016 Slavery Is Not Extinct Slavery, the keeping of slaves as a practice or institution, has held a grim but important role in America’s history. Since the founding of the United States, slavery has been a moral and human rights issue that citizens have argued over to the point of war. To most Americans, the day slavery ended was January 1st, 1863-the day President Lincoln signed the Emancipation Proclamation and freed all slaves within America’s borders. However slavery never did end-and

Multi-User Dungeons Free Essays

This lengthy article on avatars in Multi-User Dungeons (MUD) was informative and useful, though hard for the novice gamer to digest in one sitting. Literature attests to the gaming community using computers as tools to communicate and to link together friendships and partnerships. However, the article points out there is a danger of the gamer becoming overly involved in the community, and to remember that words on a forum/discussion board screen etc does not equate to an entity that reflects a physical community. We will write a custom essay sample on Multi-User Dungeons or any similar topic only for you Order Now I agree that there are differences and these need to be borne in mind during the gaming experience, however I find Rhiengold ignores the inherent similarities of virtual and physical communities with regard to their psychological processes (Agress, Edberg, Igbaria, 1998). The article reviews MUD as a dynamic and â€Å"wild side† to the Internet. Rheingold contends that real magic exists here and that a person’s identity is characterized by its fluidity. The imaginary worlds created with huge computer databases of programming languages deliver melodramas and satires, puzzles, education, leisure time and competition. With respect to the article’s description of MUD communities Rheingold is somewhat over-exuberant in listing virtues of MUDs. There is an emphasis on fantasy, power, dominance, sexual prowess and violent injury or death. The goals as presented by Rheingold are economic dominance, fame and social power. Another criticism of the article is that it is not structured soundly. The history of MUD communities begins a page or so into the article. The piece then abruptly jumps to describing potential empirical functions of MUDs; such as observing them as â€Å"living laboratories for studying the first-level impacts of virtual communities†. Rheingold does not attempt to outline how such research could be undertaken, what would be measured or how participants would be ensured of informed consent. Numerous ethical dilemmas are obvious when considering the use of MUD communities as settings for collecting social and/or psychological data. Unlike the physical environment, MUDs are not â€Å"natural† and field research designs would need to be modified to maintain ethical standards and empirical rigor. Rheingold also suggests that the MUD environments could be used a research environment for evaluation of second-level effect of virtual communities on physical world relationships, such as with family, personal relationships, friendships etc. Interestingly, Rheingold points out that fundamental issue for the western culture are called into question with MUDs, social norms, values and expectations are adapting to the virtual (pun intended) anonymity the Internet can provide. He makes a good point that this in an important issue for a community where many relationships are mediated by technology. Unfortunately, the article has several disjointed jumps, with Rheingold distributing MUD history throughout the piece. He explores the idea of gaming being an addiction, due to several MUDders admitting to spending most of their waking hours immersed in virtual worlds. The concept of MUD community addiction is presented in the article as a â€Å"communication addiction† that needs to be experienced to be understood according to MIT’s Media Lab Associate Professor Amy Bruckman; How do we feel about tens of thousands of college students spending their time and government-sponsored resources to chase virtual dragons? To answer this question, you have to dive in and explore assumptions about what is a meaningful way to spend one’s time. What are the value judgments implicit in various answers to that question? † Rheingold suggests that the first step is to investigate the fascination some gamers have with MUDding, to determine how obsession develops. Identifying unique features of the medium that engage a gamer psychologically and that meets a person’s needs and expectations would inform about fascination. He further states changing conceptualization about what is identity is the underlying cause as to how fascination develops into a dysfunctional obsession. Hence, to Rheingold, MUD communities are an extension of ongoing cognitive changes brought about by innovation, technological advancements and adaption of symbols to suit a communication-saturated society. MUD environments have allowed dissolving of social boundaries associated with time and space, as well as boundaries of identity. A gamer can pretend to be another; they can pretend to be many other people simultaneously. It appears to Rheingold that depersonalized modes of communication allow some people to be much more personal with each other as compared to a relationship in the physical world. However, he questions the authenticity of the human relationship within the cyber context, given the masking of the person and the distancing that the medium can provide. In this way he states that MUDding is not real life. However, he does not explore the potential for MUD to become a person’s life, which from a constructivist point of view, would make the virtual a â€Å"real world† given that a person is seen as constructing their own reality (Riddings Gefen, 2004). Overall, Rheingold focuses on issues of identity for the MUDder. One of the first activities that a person does when entering a MUD environment is to create an identity. They describe their character for others who inhabit or visit the MUD. It is through the creation of their identity, states Rheingold that the MUD community develops, grows, changes and maintains coherence for its members. It is the roles each gamer plays, points out Rheingold, that guides the socio-cultural value system of the community; †¦the roles give people new stages on which to exercise new identities, and their new identities affirm the reality of the scenario. The fluidity of identity is enabled by the participants being able to communicate using a number of public and private channel options; ? private e-mail ? person-to-person chat ? person-to-person chat ? â€Å"say,† â€Å"whisper,† and â€Å"pose† to anybody else in the same room ? form of group chat that uses the boundaries of metaphorical rooms as social boundaries ? turn on or off special-interest CB channels for other semipublic conversations across different parts of the MUD Poses and words are used to communicate meaning in the MUD environment. Rheingold describes the use of pose as useful though disembodied non-verbal language. Another word for posing is â€Å"emoting† and provides an added dimension to communication not possible in the physical world. For example, â€Å"[Instead] of leaving the room, you can disappear in a cloud of iridescent, bubble-gum-flavored bubbles†. Rheingold comments that first feelings of artificiality when posing soon disperse when one becomes aware of the added control they have over the ambience of the conversation. Posing can provide contextual cues to that are not available through words on a screen alone. The added advantage of having creative powers within the MUD environment takes the experience beyond that of conferencing and or chat sites, â€Å"such as magic carpets that transport their owners to secret parts of the kingdom†. Other characters are able to steal or gain power of objects and avatars of others. As such, the social construction of valuing items and characters is similar in process to that which occurs in the creation of value systems in physical communities. Similarly, the social goal of power, over others and the material world, is a social concept that continues to be maintained in the virual world. Rheingold ignores this salient feature of consistency in what makes a community. In this way, MUD environment’s can be considered â€Å"real† as they are experienced by individuals, and they do lead to the construction of social institutions, rules and common goals mediated by a culturally-dependant language. The MUD culture is framed by the technology through which it is made visible and allows interaction, and also, by the physical world from which its computer hardware and software, and persons social rules came from. Much like Russian dolls, worlds within worlds. Navigation of the MUD community provides a learning experience for each character and they learn their roles to play. Gender roles are a dominant determinant of social placement and social expectations within the physical world. So too in the world of MUD. For example, tiny. sex and net. sleazing are techniques used predominantly by male characters to seduce female newbies into cybersex that is recorded and distributed across the globe via the Internet. As such, gender stereotypes remain within the virtual world, and women tend to be viewed as inferior, gullible and unworthy of treatment as equals. Despite social thought advances in the 21st century, the physical world continues to exist within a patriarchial system that creates power struggles between dichotomies. The MUD communities do little to challenge the status quo of inequality with regard to gender, and in many ways (due to its anonymity) increase opportunities for people to act out anti-social behaviors. It must be kept in mind that these behavioral choices are grounded in physical world cultures, so that Rheingold’s claim that MUD communities are unlike the â€Å"real world† in terms of social interactions is poorly supported. In conclusion, Rheingold delivers an indepth subjective critique of MUD communities. The critical review before you has evaluated Rheingold’s interpretation and communication of the relevance and function of MUDs. Evidently, MUDding is an important psychological and social activity or â€Å"way-of-being† for many people, both female and male. This has sparked much debate in terms of addiction theories, gender issues and perhaps most importantly, ones sense of identity. This paper has demonstrated that MUD communities have the potential to be research environments if ethical criteria can be met, and that in terms of social processes virtual communities have many similarities to those of the physical world from which they emerged. References Agres, C. , Edberg, D. Igbaria, M. (1998) Transformation to Virtual Societies: Forces and Issues. The Information Society 14(2), 71-82. Rhiengold, H. (n. d. ) The Virtual Community. Retrieved January 12, 2007 from http://www. rheingold. com/vc/book/5. html Riddings, C. M. Gefen, D. (2004) Virtual Community Attraction: Why People Hang Out Online. Retrieved January 12, 2007 from http://jcmc. indiana. edu/vol10/issue1/ridings_gefen. html How to cite Multi-User Dungeons, Papers

William Henry Gates III Essay Example For Students

William Henry Gates III Essay William Henry Gates IIIChairman and Chief Executive OfficerMicrosoft CorporatioWilliam (Bill) H. Gates is chairman and chief executive officer of MicrosoftCorporation, the leading provider, worldwide, of software for the personalcomputer. Microsoft had revenues of $8.6 billion for the fiscal year ending June1996, and employs more than 20,000 people in 48 countries. Background on BillBorn on October 28, 1955, Gates and his two sisters grew up in Seattle. Theirfather, William H. Gates II, is a Seattle attorney. Their late mother, MaryGates, was a schoolteacher, University of Washington regent and chairwoman ofUnited Way International. Gates attended public elementary school and the private Lakeside School. There,he began his career in personal computer software, programming computers at age13. In 1973, Gates entered Harvard University as a freshman, where he lived down thehall from Steve Ballmer, now Microsofts executive vice president for sales andsupport. While at Harvard, Gates developed the programming language BASIC forthe first microcomputer the MITS Altair. In his junior year, Gates dropped out of Harvard to devote his energies toMicrosoft, a company he had begun in 1975 with Paul Allen. Guided by a beliefthat the personal computer would be a valuable tool on every office desktop andin every home, they began developing software for personal computers. Gates foresight and vision regarding personal computing have been central tothe success of Microsoft and the software industry. Gates is actively involvedin key management and strategic decisions at Microsoft, and plays an importantrole in the technical development of new products. A significant portion of histime is devoted to meeting with customers and staying in contact with Microsoftemployees around the world through e-mail. Under Gates leadership, Microsofts mission is to continually advance andimprove software technology and to make it easier, more cost-effective and moreenjoyable for people to use computers. The company is committed to a long-termview, reflected in its investment of more than $2 billion on research anddevelopment in the current fiscal year. As of December 12, 1996, Gates Microsoft stock holdings totaled 282,217,980shares, currently selling at $95.25, as of Feb. 20th, 1997. Giving a rough estimate of total worth:$ 26,881,262,595In 1995, Gates wrote The Road Ahead, his vision of where information technologywill take society. Co-authored by Nathan Myhrvold, Microsofts chief technologyofficer, and Peter Rinearson, The Road Ahead held the No. 1 spot on the New YorkTimes bestseller list for seven weeks. Published in the U.S. by Viking, thebook was on the NYT list for a total of 18 weeks. Published in more than 20countries, the book sold more than 400,000 copies in China alone. In 1996, whileredeploying Microsoft around the Internet, Gates thoroughly revised The RoadAhead to reflect his view that interactive networks are a major milestone inhuman history. The paperback second edition has also become a bestseller. Gatesis donating his proceeds from the book to a non-profit fund that supportsteachers worldwide who are incorporating computers into their classrooms. In addition to his passion for computers, Gates is interested in biotechnology. He sits on the board of the Icos Corporation and is a shareholder in DarwinMolecular, a subsidiary of British-based Chiroscience. He also founded CorbisCorporation, which is developing one of the largest resources of visualinformation in the worlda comprehensive digital archive of art and photographyfrom public and private collections around the globe. Gates also has investedwith cellular telephone pioneer Craig McCaw in Teledesic, a company that isworking on an ambitious plan to launch hundreds of low-orbit satellites aroundthe globe to provide worldwide two-way broadband telecommunications service. .udce49c1cb38d2af36c6bf2ae64a607eb , .udce49c1cb38d2af36c6bf2ae64a607eb .postImageUrl , .udce49c1cb38d2af36c6bf2ae64a607eb .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .udce49c1cb38d2af36c6bf2ae64a607eb , .udce49c1cb38d2af36c6bf2ae64a607eb:hover , .udce49c1cb38d2af36c6bf2ae64a607eb:visited , .udce49c1cb38d2af36c6bf2ae64a607eb:active { border:0!important; } .udce49c1cb38d2af36c6bf2ae64a607eb .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .udce49c1cb38d2af36c6bf2ae64a607eb { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .udce49c1cb38d2af36c6bf2ae64a607eb:active , .udce49c1cb38d2af36c6bf2ae64a607eb:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .udce49c1cb38d2af36c6bf2ae64a607eb .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .udce49c1cb38d2af36c6bf2ae64a607eb .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .udce49c1cb38d2af36c6bf2ae64a607eb .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .udce49c1cb38d2af36c6bf2ae64a607eb .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .udce49c1cb38d2af36c6bf2ae64a607eb:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .udce49c1cb38d2af36c6bf2ae64a607eb .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .udce49c1cb38d2af36c6bf2ae64a607eb .udce49c1cb38d2af36c6bf2ae64a607eb-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .udce49c1cb38d2af36c6bf2ae64a607eb:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: What Is History EssayIn the decade since Microsoft has gone public, Gates has donated more than $270million to charities, including $200 million to the William H. Gates Foundation. The focus of Gates giving is in three areas: education, population issues andaccess to technology. Gates was married on Jan. 1, 1994 to Melinda French Gates. They have one child,Jennifer Katharine Gates, born in 1996. Times are changing fast. Three years ago, while President Bushs camp wasmounting a direct-mail campaign unchanged from that of Reagan before him, theClinton camp, host to a horde of so-called computer whiz kids, all in theirtwenties, was developing a completely new set of election tactics, usingpersonal computer networks and electronic mail, or e-mail. Many of thesetwenty-some-odd-year-old mini-Clintons, who now occupy the White House, show upfor work in sneakers, T-shirts, and jeans, and spend each day, from morn tillnight, tapping away